The invention relates to the diagnosis and treatment of sympathetically maintained pain using sympatholytic agents which are defined herein as compounds that interfere with sympathetic function in the peripheral tissue or interfere with the action of drugs associated with sympathetic function.
Several chronic, non-malignant pain syndromes such as causalgia and reflex sympathetic dystrophy have one feature in common: blockade of the sympathetic innervation of the affected body region can lead to pain relief. The pain may result from skeletal, soft tissue, or nerve injury. Terms such as reflex sympathetic dystrophy, Sudek's atrophy, and causalgia have all been used to refer to such patients. The term “sympathetically maintained pain” (“SMP”) encompasses all pain syndromes that can be relieved by sympathetic blockade.
Patients with SMP typically have both stimulus-independent (ongoing) pain and stimulus-dependent pain (hyperalgesia). Hyperalgesia is defined as a leftward shift of the stimulus-response function, such that a lowering of pain threshold and/or an increase in pain to suprathreshold stimuli is observed. The decrease in pain threshold to mechanical stimuli may be such that lightly stroking the skin evokes pain, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as allodynia.
Conventional treatments for SMP include repeated local anesthetic sympathetic blocks, intravenous regional guanethidine/reserpine blocks, surgical sympathectomy, or oral sympatholytic therapy. However, each of these treatments carries with it a degree of risk, side effects and discomfort.
One method of diagnosis of SMP is by assessment of the results of a local anesthetic blockade of the sympathetic ganglia (LABSG) that innervate the painful part. Because of the technical expertise required in the performance of the LABSG and the potential complications associated with the LASB, alternate tests for the diagnosis of SMP have been studied. For example, intravenous regional blockage (IVRB) of sympathetic function with guanethidine has been used as a means for the diagnosis and treatment of SMP.
There are several potential disadvantages to the use of LABSG and IVRB. LABSG is subject to false negative results if the local anesthetic fails to anesthetize adequately the sympathetic ganglia. The anesthetic may reach the somatic afferents in the nearby nerve roots and produce pain relief because of concurrent somatic blockade, and certain afferents may in addition course with sympathetic efferents. Certain patients tolerate poorly the application of the tourniquet required with IVRB. LABSG involves strategic localization of the needle prior to injection, and thus fluoroscopy is often needed. With IVRB, the guanethidine may escape into the systemic circulation with resultant systemic untoward effects. A series of complications have been reported with LABSG, including pneumothorax, injury to the kidney, inadvertent systemic application, spinal anesthesia, hemorrhage, etc. It is difficult to evaluate placebo responses with both LABSG and IVRB.
It would therefore be advantageous to have a method of diagnosis and treatment that does not exhibit these difficulties.
Several lines of evidence suggest that peripheral adrenergic receptors are involved in SMP. Stimulation of the peripheral but not central cut end of the sympathetic chain reproduces pain in causalgia patients after sympathectomy. Local anesthetic blockade of the appropriate sympathetic ganglion or adrenergic blockade via intravenous administration of phentolamine, rapidly abolishes sympathetically-maintained pain and hyperalgesia. Depletion of peripheral catecholamines by regional intravenous guanethidine relieves pain and hyperalgesia. Intradermal injection of norepinephrine rekindles the pain and hyperalgesia that had been relieved in patients by sympathectomy or sympathetic block but does not cause pain or hyperalgesia in normal subjects. The non-specific α-adrenergic antagonist phenoxybenzamine and the specific α1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin can be effective in relieving pain in patients with SMP. The beta-adrenergic antagonist propranolol has little effect on SMP.
It is therefore possible that administration of an α-adrenergic blocking agent could be beneficial in the treatment of SMP patients. Therapeutic uses of the α-adrenergic compounds, for example, phentolamine and clonidine, are known in the art. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,801,587 discloses the use of phentolamine as a vasodilator to treat impotence. U.S. Pat. No. 4,310,535 discloses the use of phentolamine in combination with other drugs for use in the control of immune reactions. The use of phentolamine and clonidine for controlling hypertension is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,250,191. α-Adrenergic drugs have been found to be useful in the stabilization of intraocular lenses, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,443,441. U.S. Pat. No. 4,201,211, discloses the use of a clonidine patch for therapeutic use as a stimulant for the central nervous system.
It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a topical method of diagnosis for sympathetically maintained pain that has a low incidence of false positives and false negatives.
It is another object of the present invention to provide a topical method of diagnosis and treatment of sympathetically maintained pain that has a low incidence of adverse reactions with relatively minor complications.